TYPES OF GERMAN SURNAME
CHANGES IN AMERICA
ur names are very much part of what de-
fines us as a person.¹ The given name
identifies us as individuals within the group in
which we live and function. Normally, we are
the only person identified by that particular
name within the group. Most of us have given
names that our parents liked for some reason
or other, selected in a rather accidental fashion.
Our surname is, of course, anything but acci-
dental. A person's surname, also called the
family name, is the reference point which de-
fines our relationship to society at large. It
links us to the generations of our family which
came before us as well as to our living relatives
beyond the immediate family. The family name
opens up vistas of ancestry, family history, na-
tional origin, religious background.
Originally all names, whether given or fam-
ily, were based on meaningful words and were
formed or bestowed on the basis of what they
meant. Over time, changes in the language
have frequently obscured the original mean-
ings. This is particularly true of given names.
In a surname the original meaning often re-
mains obvious as long as the name stays within
the language of its origin, e.g., names such as
Carpenter and Weaver in English or Zimmermann
and Weber in German tell us that the ancestor
with whom the name originated was a carpen-
ter or a weaver respectively. Even with less
transparent names, a lingering knowledge
about the meaning of the family name is
handed down from generation to generation
in most families.
Given that one's name is so much a part of
what defines us as a person, most people would
consider meddling with their names as the
equivalent of an assault upon their personality.
At least this would be the case in European
countries.² But when a person moves from the
country and language in which his or her
name originated to a different linguistic envi-
ronment, as is the case upon emigration, what
is left of a name's semantic transparency is lost.
Also lost is the link to the standard orthogra-
phy in the original language. As a consequence
the written manifestation of the name is desta-
bilized. The move to the new linguistic envi-
ronment brings with it adaptations and, in
some cases, drastic changes.
As a nation of immigrants, the United States
has become home to millions of families whose
surnames were no longer in harmony with the
prevailing language or its orthographic rules.
This is certainly the reason for a laissez-faire atti-
tude towards name changes as observed by
Howard F. Barker:
Changes of name have never been prohibited
in this country and are rarely questioned by
the law. Indeed, slight modifications are not
recognized as changes, provided the same
sound is retained. Given the considerable
amount of illiteracy, especially in colonial
times, and a continual pressure on foreign
names to make them more American, numer-
ous alterations have ensued.³
The overview which follows establishes a
classification system for alterations to German
names which occurred after the bearers of
those names immigrated to America.4
In his book German-American Names, George
F. Jones articulates the popular notion that the
name changes originated with the captains of
the immigrant ships:
When the immigrants boarded their ships at
Rotterdam, the English captains had difficulty
in writing their manifests or ships [sic] lists.
Knowing no German, and unfamiliar with Ger-
man dialects, the scribes wrote down the
names as they heard them, sometime in the
form of the English names most resembling
the sound. In this way, Theiss, Weiss, and Weid-
mann became Dice, Wise and Whiteman [. . .]5
Although it is true that the ship lists fre-
quently show the kind of spelling changes
Jones describes, immigrants were under no
obligation to use their names in the shape they
had been spelled by the captain or his clerks
after their arrival on American shores.6 Until
the immigration process was formalized by
channelling all immigrants through Ellis Is-
land, which was not until 1892, immigrants did
not receive an official immigration document.
As to the misspellings, it is unlikely that the im-
migrants even remembered in what shape
- 2 3 -
O
German Surnames
their names had been taken down.if they
could read at all. As H. L. Mencken7 observed,
"[t]he early German immigrants had no very
definite ideas about the spelling of their own
names." Of equally little long-term conse-
quence, as far as name spellings were con-
cerned, was the act of putting one's signature
under the oath of allegiance or signing the
document abjuring the Church of Rome, as
was required by law.8
An official act of somewhat more con-
sequence was the registration of land pur-
chases in the local courts. Here again, German
surnames appear in all kinds of shapes, either
perfectly German or totally Americanized, or
in between. The American bureaucracy solved
the problem by establishing the principle of
idem sonans, that is, if different name spellings
"sounded the same," a claim of an unbroken
line of ownership was acknowledged.
Today, most scholars are in agreement that
in the majority of cases name changes are
likely to have occurred gradually rather than
through an official act.9 Immigrants pro-
nounced their names in much the same ways
they had pronounced them in the Old Coun-
try. Their English-speaking neighbors picked
up the names as sounds, possibly making a
mental picture of a spelling according to the
rules of the English language. When it came to
writing the names, those mental pictures were
put onto paper. As long as the bearers of the
names still knew German and understood the
spelling of their name, they would either cor-
rect the misspellings or just disregard them.
But the time would come when the German
language was lost within the family and the feel
for what was correct in German spelling no
longer prevailed. Sooner or later many would
get tired of the constant need to correct. As a
result, the world around them would settle on
spellings that would be easy to write and re-
member for a person used to hearing and writ-
ing the English language.10 In most cases, and
certainly in most cases where the Anglicized
spelling produced a resemblance of the sound
of the German original, it is therefore more ap-
propriate to say that the names "changed"
rather than "were changed." "Were changed" is
the correct wording only in cases of outright
translation.
The following overview of changes that were
most common uses the system and terminol-
ogy designed by Einar Haugen11 in his discus-
sion of Norwegian surnames in America. Modi-
fications and additions accommodate the
developments that specifically concern sur-
names that are of German origin. Examples
are taken from the author's files collected over
a period of almost two decades, verified and
augmented by checks on the PhoneDisc12 sys-
tem. Particularly illustrative examples are also
taken from existing studies.
Haugen distinguished retention from revision
and substitution. In the case of retention, the
original spelling is preserved but pronuncia-
tion shows the influence of the English-speak-
ing environment. Revision includes respelling,
elimination of unfamiliar letter combinations,
and abbreviating. In the case of substitution,
no trace of the name's original orthographic
manifestation is preserved. Haugen noted that
"in practice these alternatives might overlap,
since the orthographic revision could make a
name coincide with a previously existing Eng-
lish name."13 Still, such cases do not invalidate
the basic distinctions, which prove useful in
bringing some order into what H. L. Mencken
called "a dreadful mess."14
I. RETENTION OF THE GERMAN
SPELLING
Not all German names changed or were
changed. In the areas of the country that were
settled when general literacy had already es-
tablished a predominance of the written over
the spoken medium, many names that are com-
plicated even by German standards have re-
tained their spellings. For the city of Milwaukee
this includes, according to the city telephone
directory, Bauernfeind, Eineichner, Eisenhauer,
Friedrichsohn, Harnischfeger, Heinzelmann, Neuen-
schwander, Pfannenstiel, Schumacher, Schwarzkopf,
Schwerdtfeger, Seidensticker, Sichlassenfallen, Stadt-
mueller, Uihlein and many others.
With Persistence of German Pronunciation
Names may retain their spelling but will
- 2 4 -
German Surnames
most likely be affected in their pronunciation.
The relationship between symbol and sound is
language-specific; German names transferred
into an English-speaking environment will be
pronounced according to the rules of English.
There are very few German names which
would be pronounced the same in both En-
glish and German. Most of those are one-sylla-
ble names, e.g., Beck, Fick, Lind, Lipp, Mencken,
Mett, Meyer, Misch...
With Partial Persistence of German
Pronunciation
German or near-German pronunciation may
persist against the rules of English. "Individual
families can make their wishes felt," Haugen15
observed. In Wisconsin, the Jung Seed Com-
pany uses the pronunciation [jõn] in radio and
television advertising. A community with a
strong German heritage helps preserve un-
usual pronunciation habits. A woman from
Hamburg, Wisconsin, told me with reference
to the name Euler that "in our area, we said it
like 'Oiler' but now that my parents have
moved away and I have married I say 'Youler'."
Persistence of near-German pronunciation
against what would normally prevail in an Eng-
lish-speaking environment is evident in the
American evolution of the German umlaut
sounds symbolized by <ü> and <ö>. English
does not have these front rounded vowels. Al-
ternative German spellings are <ue> and <oe>
which, if transferred into English, will allow the
pronunciation [i] and [åI] to be maintained
with relative ease. Names so pronounced will
be understood by native Germans; it is a pro-
nunciation actually found in many German di-
alects. Hence, Kuehn (German Kühn or Kuehn)
would be pronounced [kin] (like English keen)
and Goebel would be [gåIbÝl] (like English
gable).
With Anglicized Spelling Pronunciation
Spelling pronunciation, or the pronun-
ciation of the German name by giving each let-
ter or syllable the sounds that are usual in anal-
ogous English words, rather than pronouncing
them in a way that still reflects the original Ger-
man pronunciation, will affect all names of
German origin. Some names may get by with
minor changes, such as Fischer, Frick, Keller.
Others become unrecognizable to a German
ear, such as Ueberroth ['jubÝ, raè].
Spelling pronunciation takes care of the two
German consonant sounds not found in Eng-
lish, [ç] and [x] are both represented by <ch>
in German orthography. Spelling pro-
nunciation produces [k] (as found in ache and
mechanic) in names such as Schlicht and Eichhoff,
or (less frequently) [t.], e.g., in Koch. The most
audible change concerns the letter <z>, pro-
nounced [ts] in German but [z] in English, as
in Ziegler, Zimmerman(n), Schmelzer. In the case of
vowels, spelling pronunciation replaces German
[e] by English [i] as in Peters and Seemann, and
<eu> (German [ëi]) by [u] in Steuben and Euler,
to mention two of the most obvious changes.
With Translation Pronunciation
In the Second Supplement to The American Lan-
guage, Mencken ridicules the "curious habit" of
the people in the "somewhat decadent village
of Potosi, Wis." who would preserve "the origi-
nal German spelling" of the name Schmidt even
though the pronunciation had changed to
Smith.16 Decadent or not, the phenomenon is
quite common, especially in the case of names
based on appellatives which are cognates in the
two languages. Hence, the name Koch is heard
as [koõk] or [kët.], rarely as [kák] but most
commonly [kõk], that is, as though it were the
English name Cook. The name Freitag has been
reported as being pronounced exactly like its
equivalent in English, Friday." Elda O. Bau-
mann reports that in Potosi the pronunciation
[miter] is used for a name spelled Muller.18
The term "translation pronunciation" was
suggested by George J. Metcalf19 in reference
to the observation that certain German names
that are phonetically close to English ones, will
assume the pronunciation of those English
names yet retain their German spelling. His ex-
amples are cognates, but it does not require a
cognate relationship for a replacement to take
effect. Joseph Schantz, an immigrant from
Switzerland, laid out a town in western Pennsyl-
vania in the year 1800 which he called Cone-
maugh, after the river that flows by it. To his
- 2 5 -
German Surnames
fellow citizens the name Schantz sounded more
like "Johns," and it did not take long for this
version to also be used in writing. In 1834 the
borough and city was renamed Johnstown20 in
his honor. But all the while, the founder signed
documents as Joseph Schantz, using the old Ger-
man lettering no less.21
With Silencing of German Letters
Letters are silenced in names of German ori-
gin as they would be in comparable English
words. Names beginning with kn such as
Knauer, Knieriem, Knobloch (where the k is pro-
nounced in German) but also those having the
kn cluster medially, e.g., Frischknecht, drop the k
in English.
A syllable-initial h is silenced in Schonhoff
[.ounÝf] (German Schoenhoff)23 and Schoenherr
[.åInÝr], also in Gerhardt [d„xƒÃrId]. In Hofheinz
(also Hofheins), the h is hardly pronounced in
German either but never lost in the writing be-
cause of the name's transparency.
With Pronunciation of German Silent Letters
In German, the letter h at the end of what is
perceived as a syllable is not pronounced. In
the English-speaking environment this percep-
tion is lost, and the letter is usually interpreted
as the onset of the next syllable. So Frueh\auf
becomes Frue\hauf in the name well known
from truck mudflaps.
Another silent German h is the one that in
older German was added to the letter t without
affecting pronunciation (as in English Thomp-
son) . A spelling reform abolished this tradition
in 1901 but names were generally not affected.
Consequently, in names such as Thiel, Thiessen,
Thode, Bethke, Rothrock, Walther, Jungbluth, Wirth,
Americans interpret the <th> sequence as rep-
resenting the sound [è] as found initially in
thin. In names such as Schultheis(s), the t and
the h are divided by the syllable boundary in
German but combined as [è] in English, also
resulting in re-syllabification.
With Simplification of German Sound
Clusters
The clusters consisting of the sound [J] (the
initial sound in English "shore," represented
by <sch> in German) plus l, m, n and w [v] are
not found in English. As a consequence, names
such as Schlicht, Schmelzer, Schneider, Schwartz are
routinely pronounced by changing [f] to [s],
i.e., [slIkt] etc. Equally difficult to pronounce
for Americans is the frequent German cluster
[pf]. In names such as Pfeffer, Pfersching, Pfister,
Schimmelpfennig, either the [p] or the [f] is si-
lenced in pronunciation, the latter more com-
monly than the former.
With Re-syllabification
Re-syllabification occurs when a speaker is
not familiar with the rules of syllable boundary
that apply to German. For example, in Ger-
man compound names whose first element
ends with an s (often indicating a genitive) and
the second begins with an h, the <sh> will be
identified as standing for the English sound
[.], e.g., Wollers\heim in German becomes
Woller\sheim in English. Re-syllabification also
occurs through the pronunciation of letters
which are silent in German, see Pronunciation
of German Silent Letters, above.
With loss of Bi-syllabic Structure
In English, word-final e following a single
consonant modifies the quality of the stem
vowel, cf. hat vs. hate. In German, word-final e
is
pronounced. Consequently, the name Bode is
bi-syllabic in German but will be interpreted as
[boõd] in English. Similarly, Hase, Rothe. Al-
though their final -e does not affect the stem
vowel, names such as Heide, Olde and Schultze
will also be pronounced as one syllable if cor-
rective measures (see Respelling with an Eye to
Preserving the Original Pronunciation, below)
are not taken.
II. REVISION OF THE GERMAN NAME
Respelling Necessitated by German
Orthographic Symbols not Found in English
The Letter ß. The German letter ß (pro-
nounced es-tset, German for "s-z", the letters from
which it was originally composed) stands for the
"sharp" s and is found in medial and word-final
position. Americans normally did not recognize
the letter or mistake it for a capital B.23
- 2 6 -
German Surnames
Upon immigration, it was common to
change the <ß> spelling to <ss>, an option that
exists in German. Other possibilities, both also
(but rarely) found in Germany, are the
spellings <sz> and <hs> (the latter through a
misinterpretation of the symbol when written
in old German longhand). Hence, we find the
name Geißler in America becomes Geissler (or
Geisler) but also Geihsler and Geiszler, as docu-
mented by PhoneDisc.
The umlauts.24 In German, the symbols <ä>,
<ö> and <ü> represent vowel sounds that are
phonetically quite different from the sounds
that are represented by the same base symbols
without the diacritic. Upon immigration, sev-
eral alternatives are available for spelling
names with umlaut symbols in a manner ac-
ceptable in the new homeland.
Spelling with the base symbol plus e. This al-
ternative is possible also in German, e.g., when
umlaut symbols are not available in telegraphic
transmission or, more recently, E-mail. Occa-
sionally, even German families have settled on
this spelling rather than using the umlaut sym-
bols in their names.
Spelling with the base symbol only. This op-
tion, applied only in America, will result in
spelling pronunciations which are quite differ-
ent from the German umlauts except in the
case of German <ä> vs. English <a> where the
correspondence may be close. Examples for
the two options are Kuehn or Kuhn (German
Kühn), Goebel or Gobel (German Göbel), Jaeger
and Jager (German Jäger).
American families who choose to resolve the
umlaut problem by using the base symbol plus
e will be able to also preserve a pronunciation
that is similar to the German. The problem is
that these are not the pronunciations which a
speaker of English would naturally produce
when seeing the name written. So the Kuehns
who, in the family tradition, pronounce their
name [kin] will constantly have to correct
those who say [kjun], as the Goebels will have to
correct those who say [goõbl]. Over time, espe-
cially if families live in isolation from others
with a similar name, there is a strong tendency
to succumb to the "English" way of pronounc-
ing their names, unless the spelling is changed
to reflect the "German" sound (see Silencing
of German Letters, above).
Those who changed a German <ä> to <ae>
burdened successive generations with problems
arising from the fact that the sequence <ae> is
so much rarer in English than is <ea>. As a con-
sequence, names such as Yaeger (German Jäger)
were frequently misspelled Yeager. In due time,
this became the regular spelling; PhoneDisc lists
almost 8,000 Yeagers in the U.S. but only a 1,441
Yaegers. Similarly, the American Kreamers and
Creamers were all Krämers originally.
Continuing to use the umlaut diacritics.
Americans will generally pronounce the um-
laut symbols disregarding the diacritics, as in
the brand name Löwenbräu (American English
[loõènbraõ]). However, in the case of <ü>, its
continued use in longhand writing seems to
have been picked up by people who were not
familiar with the German symbol as <ii>, i.e.,
double i, resulting in spellings such as Biittner
(German Büttner), Kiibler, Kiihn, Liittschwager,
Miick, Miihlbach, Miiller, Reimschiissel and
dozens more.25 Obviously, this remarkable de-
velopment which resulted in a symbol se-
quence not otherwise found in either English
or German was not at all uncommon.
Respelling with an Eye to Preserving the Origi-
nal Pronunciation
Respelling is the effort, either on the part of
the bearer of a name or on the part of some-
one who hears it pronounced, to render the
German pronunciation according the rules of
English orthography, or at least reasonably so.
In most cases, the vowels are affected. For ex-
ample, the sound of the German name Bruck-
ner is preserved (and saved from the effects of
spelling pronunciation) by spelling it Brookner.
Similarly, that of Fuss by spelling it Foos. Only
partially successful was the change from Zug to
Zook; obviously, spelling pronunciation of the
<z> had become established before the rest of
the name changed its spelling. Of the diph-
thong sounds the ones most likely to require
respelling to preserve their pronunciation are
[aI] (spelled <ei> in German) and [oi]
(spelled <eu> or <äu> in German). Examples
of the numerous respellings are: Heide>Hidy,
- 2 7 -
German Surnames
Klein>Kline or Cline, also Clyne, Kaiser>Kizer,
Bäumeler> Bimeler26 Neuhäuser>Nihizer. The re-
spel-ling in the latter examples is certainly due
to the fact the [oi] became [aI] in the German
dialects that predominated among the early
immigrants. In many other cases the spelling
<eu> is retained and subjected to spelling
pronunciation, e.g., Steuben. Among the com-
pound names, an example for respelling is
Izenhower for Eisenhauer, even though the popu-
larity of the name has preserved a near-Ger-
man pronunciation even for the unchanged
spelling.
A number of consonant sounds likewise
needed to be respelled in order to preserve the
original German sound in the English-speak-
ing environment. Quite common is the
spelling <Y> for German <J> in initial position,
representing the sound [j]: Jäger>Ya(e)ger,
Jahraus> Yahraus,Jungfleisch>Yungfleisch,Jüngling>
Yuengling, Joder>Yoder.27 In syllable-initial posi-
tion <z> for German <s> is found:
Siebold>Ziebold, Kaiser>Kaizer or Kizer,
Neuhäuser>Nihizer. Others, such as <v> for Ger-
man <w> (Jungwirth>Yungvirt, Schwartz>Svartz,
Winkler>Vinkler) are rare and possibly influ-
enced by languages other than German and
English.
Also originally the result of respelling is
<gh> where German has <ch>. We frequently
find this in compound names ending in -baugh,
German -bach. The German spelling <ch> rep-
resents the sound [X], the velar fricative not
found in English. However, the early scribes,
many of whom were of Scots-Gaelic extraction,
knew the sound from Scots names such as
Laughlin28and applied the respective spelling.29
A particular challenge faces persons whose
German name was bi-syllabic and ended in -e,
e.g., Bode,30 Goethe, Kade, Thode. In English
orthography, an -e following a single consonant
is not pronounced but merely determines the
shade of the stem vowel, as in hat vs. hate. A
solution frequently employed that preserves
the bi-syllabic character of the original name
with a minimum of change in the pronuncia-
tion, is replacing the -e with a -y. Adding the y
to the e or replacing it with -ie will have the
same effect. As a consequence, we find names
such as Bodey, Goethie, Kadey and Kadie, Langey
and Langie. Names with more than a single let-
ter between the stem vowel and the final e re-
tain their bi-syllabic structure more easily but
will often add a y just to make the pronuncia-
tion quite clear, or because an -ey or -y ending
looks more comfortable as an English ending
than just -e. Bethkey (German Bethke), Willkie
(German Willcke),31 Keehney (German Kühne),
Langie, Langey (German Lange), Rippley (Ger-
man Rieple).
"Dutchified" Names
The spellings of many of the names going
back to early immigration reflect the pro-
nunciations of the names in the dialects spo-
ken by the immigrants. This was generally the
Palatinate dialect which was gradually accepted
in Pennsylvania and developed into what is
today known as "Pennsylvania German"
("Pennsylvania Dutch" in the earlier notation).
Donald Herbert Yoder used the term "Dutchi-
fied"32 to characterize the dialect-based
spellings. For example, German [I] and [e] be-
fore [r] (and certain other sounds) is pro-
nounced [a] in the dialect, as reflected in
Harshbarger (German Hirschberger) and Spangler
(German Spengler). Names spelled with <ü> or
<ue> in German are spelled with <i> in Dutchi-
fied names if the German sound was [Y] (the
"short" ü), e.g., Guengerich>Ging(e)rich; if it was
[Y] before [r] it became [å], e.g.,
Zuericher>Zercher, if it was [y] (the "long" ü), it
became <ie> or <ee>, e.g., Kuefer>Kieffer,
Keeffer). The [aI] sound, spelled <ei> or <ey> in
German names, became [ëi] and accounts for
Moyer for German Meyer. Among the conso-
nants, a widespread change is [b] to [v], as re-
flected in Hoover (German Huber). en in medial
or final position routinely became a, as in Look-
abaugh from German Luckenbach.
Respelling to Bring Orthography in Line with
Spelling Pronunciations
The English language does not have the
sounds [ç] and [x], both represented in Ger-
man orthography by <ch>. In most cases,
spelling pronunciation results in [k], as found
in ache and mechanic. But the spelling <ch> for
- 2 8 -
German Surnames
the sound [k] is not widespread. Hence, the
pronunciation tends to lead to the more famil-
iar spelling <ck> (as in luck, packer). Examples
are Rickenbacker for German Richenbacher, or
Eickoff for Eichhoff.
Respelling of "Resolved" German Umlaut
Vowels
As discussed earlier, the umlauts spelled <ü>
and <ö> can be spelled <ue> and <oe> in Ger-
man, and often are in German names upon im-
migration. This allows for the pronunciations
[i] and [åI], respectively, close enough to the
original German sounds. However, again it es
not a "normal" way of spelling the sounds in
English. The tendency is towards a more com-
mon English spelling. Hence we find Bame
(also Bahme) for Boehm (German Böhm), Gabel
or Gable for Goebel (German Göbel)33, Keehn for
Kuehn (German Kühn), Free(h)ouf for Fruehauf
(German Frühauf), Yingling for Yuengling (Ger-
man Jüngling).
Respelling Reflecting More Common English
Orthography
The tendency to settle for a more common
rather than a rare English spelling is repeated
in the treatment of <el> found in unstressed
syllables of German names. English has the
spellings <el> (model) as well as <le> (uncle) but
in the names of the earlier immigrants and still
quite frequently later, the German spelling is
routinely changed to the more familiar English
<le>: Engel>Engle, Goebel>Gable, Nagel>Nagle,
Dunkel-berger> Dunkleberger, etc.
For the sound [f], the spelling is <sch> in
German but <sh> in English. Elimination of
the "superfluous" © results in changes such as
Schultz>Shultz, Schwartz>Shwartz, Pfer-
sching>Pfershing. After t, because of the id-
iosyncrasies of English orthography the same
sound is spelled <ch>, resulting in Fritch from
German Fritsch.
The German cluster <tz>, pronounced [ts],
is just as easily rendered if written <ts>: Shults
from S(c)hultz and Shwarts from S(c)hwartz. In
the case of <tz> in Schultz (and in Pfal(t)zgraf as
well as others), the sound of the German name
is preserved (because of the phonetic charac-
teristics of the dental sound [1]) even if the let-
ter t is dropped entirely and the names spelled
S(c)huls and P(f)alsgraf in English.
Respelling Reflecting Simplified
Pronunciation
The simplified pronunciations noted in Sim-
plification of German Sound Clusters, above,
have often resulted in the actual elimination of
the "superfluous" letters. In the case of [J] be-
coming [s] (preceding l, m, n and w), we find
the resultant spellings Slicht (or Slict) from
Schlicht, Smidt and Smelzer from Schmidt and
Schmelzer, Snider (frequently Snyder) from
Schneider, Swartz from Schwartz, as well as many
others.
From the simplification of [pf] with re-
tention of either the one or the other compo-
nent result the doublets Hassenplug/Hassenflug,
Palsgraf/Falsgraf, Peffer/Feffer, Pers(c)hing34
/Fers(c)hing, Pister/Fister, S(c)him(m)elpennig,
S(c) him(m) elfennig.
Elimination of the silenced <h> is found, in
addition to various other typical respellings, in
Huffines, from Hofheinz; see also Silencing of
German Letters, above.
Elimination of "Superfluous" Letters
German orthography employs consonants,
especially double consonants, to indicate that a
vowel is short. In other cases, certain conso-
nants are present for etymological reasons.
Transferred into English, these graphic sym-
bols may no longer be required or meaningful.
Hence, in the case of Schimmelpfennig, the dou-
ble consonants protect the "short" character of
the <i> and the <e> in German but do nothing
for the pronunciation in English that the
spelling Schimelpfenig could not also do. Like-
wise, in spite of, e.g, hitchhiker, the English lan-
guage does not easily allow two h's to stand next
to each other in names.35 Hence, people in this
country having compound names of German
origin containing h+h because the first element
ends and the second begins with h, are con-
stantly fighting a battle to prevent one h from
getting lost. Examples are Bachhofer, Bochholt,
Buchholz, Fleischhauer which all have American
variants with one of the hs missing.
- 2 9 -
German Surnames
The "superfluous" letter most routinely
dropped is one n from -mann as the base el-
ement in compounds: Bachman, Haldeman.
The process is, of course, supported by the fact
that it results in the English translation of the
German word. Equally "superfluous" is one of
the word-final ss that were ß in German in
names such as Ziegenfuss, that will become
Ziegenfus.
Clipping
German surnames tend to be longer than
English ones. This easily leads to clipping part
of the name off in everyday life. There may
also have been a desire on the part of the im-
migrant to shorten the German name, es-
pecially if it is burdened with difficult spelling.
Clipping affects the first part of a name more
commonly than the second part:
Lautenbergef>Lauten, Lebenschweiler> Swiler36,
Rosenbaum Ross(!), Schrecken-berger>Berger, Sei-
den-spinner>Seidens37, Swartzenbaugh> Swartz38,
Veitenheimer> Veit, Wildschuetz> Wild.
Partial Respelling/ Translation
A large number of German surnames are
compound names, consisting of a base word
(often a name in its own right) and a deter-
mining element. In America, both of these can
undergo changes but typically, only one of the
elements is affected, e.g. in Eisenhower (Ger-
man Eisenhauer), the base word is respelled
whereas the equally un-American determiner
remains unchanged. In this case, the respelling
is just that, i.e., hower is not an English word,
but in most cases respelling actually results in
an English word which tends to be the transla-
tion of the changed element.
Examples for changes of the first element
are, Applebaum (German Apfelbaum), Brownstein
(German Braunstein), Good-weiler (German
Gutweiler), Newmeyer (German Neumeyer). The
second element is changed in Baumgarden
(German Baum-garten), Messersmith (German
Messer-schmidt), Steinway (German Steinweg),
and Haudenshield (German Haudenschild, a so-
called "imperative" surname). Whether the
first or the last element changes seems to be
determined solely by which of the elements in
the German name is closer in sound to the re-
spective English equivalent, e.g., in the case of
Apfelbaum, Apfel is more similar to apple than
Baum is to tree. Mann is closer to man than any
other German-English corresponding pair and
hence the element first and most frequently
changed. Along these lines it is possible to es-
tablish an hierarchical order and predict, in a
given example, which one of the elements is
likely to be changed and which one is not.
III. SUBSTITUTION
Substitution results in surname forms that
look completely English. Nothing in their
spelling suggests their German origin. Yet an
important difference presents itself when these
names are seen side by side with the German
names they replaced. Some are quite different
in their spelling but their "meaning" is the
same. These are the names that were con-
sciously translated. Others also are, technically,
the translations of their German counterparts.
But they look quite similar to their German
counterparts and in fact, simple respelling
played the major role in their reshaping. Most
of the latter changes result in linguistic cog-
nates.
Substitution by Meaning: Translation
New names resulting from translation have
only their meaning in common with the Ger-
man names they replaced. Their spellings are
completely different. To bring about the
change, a conscious act was required, either an
act of power on the part of an outside agent or
agency, or an act of will on the part of the
name bearer.
Changes imposed by outside agents seem to
have taken place at the time of early German
immigration. It is reported that "[w]henever
William Penn could translate a German name
into a corresponding English one, he did so in
issuing patents for land in Pennsylvania; thus
the respectable Carpenter family in Lancaster
are the descendants of a Zimmermann."39
In many situations and at various times in
American history, German immigrants or their
descendants found it desirable to hide the con-
nections to the ancestral homeland which their
- 3 0 -
German Surnames
surnames betrayed, by having their names offi-
cially changed. Many such changes were en-
acted in response to anti-German sentiments
during World War I. In general, however, trans-
lation was not very widespread and actually un-
usual in the wake of the German mass immi-
gration during the 19th century.40 Barker
observed that "translation is an active factor for
change only when little change in sound is nec-
essary,"41 i.e., primarily in the cases of "conver-
sion" discussed in the following section.
Only the history of the individual family can
determine whether a Carpenter or a Taylor fam-
ily descended from immigrant ancestors
named Zimmermann or Schneider. In a few cases,
however, a translated name may not exist as a
family name in the English-speaking world. For
example, the names Silknitter, Ironcutter and
Turnipseed, are not listed in the Dictionary of
English Surnames by Reaney and Wilson and
can safely be considered translations of the
German names Seidenstricker, Eisenhauer and
Rübsam(en), respectively, on the basis of this evi-
dence alone.
One of the reasons behind translating is the
desire to gain a name that causes no stumbling
or offense in an English-speaking environ-
ment. It may, however, also lead to a name that
is not all that attractive, as the name Turnipseed
from the German Rübsamen shows.
Substitution by Sound: Conversion
As the discussion of Translation Pro-
nunciation (above) indicated, there is a strong
tendency to change the pronunciation of Ger-
man surnames to similar sounding English
ones, a process known as "conversion."42 The
name Müller changed to Miller by the thou-
sands because it already sounded very much
like Miller. Similarly, the name Schild(t)
changed to Shield, Weber to Wea-ver, etc. Often
the similar sounding names are cognates, as
they are in these cases, but they do not have to
be, as the examples Graf to Grove and of
Margaret Mitchell (born Margaret Moeschl)
indicate.
Again, in cases like these it is no longer pos-
sible to use the surname as an indication of
German ancestry; only research on the in-
dividual family will discover that the change oc-
curred. But also again, there are exceptions.
The name Wag(g)oner, although it looks very
English, clearly indicates German ancestry be-
cause the word waggon (wagon in American
English) was not borrowed into English from
the Dutch until the 16th century, far too late to
become productive in forming surnames in
Great Britain.43 All Wag(g)oners therefore have a
Wagner as an immigrant ancestor.
Beyond Respelling: Groping for Meaning
Names are often respelled in order to pro-
vide a suitable English spelling for a German
sound. So the name Böhm (or Boehm), pro-
nounced so as to rhyme with came in Pennsylva-
nia German and also in the English rendering
of the German umlaut sound) frequently be-
came to be spelled Bame in this country. But
the process is likely to continue beyond the
simple act of respelling. Although Bame looks
English enough, to be comfortable people like
a name to have "meaning." The sound of Bame
will quickly bring to mind the phonetically
close word beam. Indeed, there are many Penn-
sylvania German families by the name of Beam
that trace their ancestry back to an immigrant
named Böhm. According to PhoneDisc, the
name Beam holds a commanding lead in the
U.S. over Bame.44 Interestingly, there are vari-
ants that still retain the German h: Bahme and
even Beahm.
The importance of the factor "meaning" in
the adaptation of German names to the Ameri-
can environment is obvious when the history
of the name Böhm/Beam is compared to that of
Göbel/Gable. In both cases, the same vowel
sound is the source. In the case of Gable, the
product of simple respelling was a meaningful
word, so no further development took place.
In the case of Bame, the change of the vowel
had to be pushed a little further to arrive at a
meaningful product, hence Beam.
To what extremes the groping for meaning
principle can be carried is evident in the
name Birckenbeuel (meaning 'hill of birch
trees') which went through the stages Perka-
peal, Pirkeypile and Porcabile until ending up as
Porcupine.45
- 3 1 -
German Surnames
Folk Etymology
The preceding example is a simple example
of folk etymology, defined in Webster's Third as
"the transformation of words so as to give them
an apparent relationship to other better-
known or better-understood words." Most
products of folk etymology are compounds.
The German name Rübsam (also Rübsamen)
means 'seed of the turnip' and is originally
a nickname for a farmer growing turnips.
Most occurrences in this country, according
to PhoneDisc, are in the forms Rubsam and
Ruebsam. The latter allows the pronunciation
[ribsám] which is close to the German original
and will immediately bring up the concept of a
name composed of the elements reap and some.
Indeed in parts of Pennsylvania, the name
Reapsome does exist.46 Mencken reports on the
Todenackers in Pennsylvania who live on as the
Toothatchers.47 Another Pennsylvania name is
Pennypacker. This is not originally someone who
packs pennies but, as the German original
Pfannebecker indicates, a maker of roof tiles.
Kirchthaler is a Palatinate name, meaning 'per-
son from the village of Kirchthal' or 'person
from the valley with the church.' In the Penn-
sylvania German dialect, this is pronounced
['karIç,dálÝr] suggesting, with a shot of folk et-
ymology added, Cashdollar . a name found
231 times in U.S. telephone directories, ac-
cording to PhoneDisc.48
Substitution by an Unrelated Name
Haugen reports for Norwegian immigrants
that simply abandoning an Old World name
and adopting a completely unrelated English
one is "not particularly common."49 Nor was it
for German immigrants. Examples are not eas-
ily available for the very reason that the change
was made: The intention was to become unrec-
ognizable.
A New Name with a Link to the Old One
Those who made a drastic change often tried
to at least preserve a token of allegiance to the
name they abandoned. Frequently this was
achieved by selecting or constructing an Eng-
lish-looking name that would have the same ini-
tial letter or letters as the abandoned German
one. In his desire to adopt an appealing stage
name, John Deutschendorf changed his name to
John Denver, and George Birnbaum reappeard as
George Burns. Closer to his original name was
the choice of Charles Zwick who had his name
officially changed to Charles Z. Wick, known to
many as the director of the U.S. Information
Agency under President Reagan. A more so-
phisticated example is that of Charles Cist,
Henry Miller's partner in the printing of the
German version of the Declaration of Indepen-
dence whose birth name was Karl Jakob Sigis-
mund Thiel. He composed his new surname
from the initials of the original names, with the
first one of the given names anglicized.50
IV. OTHER CHANGES
German surnames underwent a number of
other changes triggered by the new linguistic
environment that they encountered on the
American continent. That new linguistic envi-
ronment was not always an English-speaking
one. Germans were among the early settlers in
Louisiana when the predominant language was
still French. Gallicised names found on the
"German Coast" include Chance (German
Schantz), Chauffe (German Schaf), Leche and
Laiche (German Lesch), Oubre and Ouvre (Ger-
man Huber) and others.51
By the same token, hiberization occurred in
areas predominantly Irish. Where names be-
ginning with O' or M(a)c were common, some
German names lent themselves easily to
change. Hence, we find O'Dekoven (from Ger-
man Ödekoven) ,52 McAfoos (from German Muck-
enfuss), McEnheimer (German Mückenheimer).
A common phenomenon in Colonial sur-
names, including English ones, is the ex-
crescent -s, e.g., Ames (from Oehm)53, Myers, Sny-
ders. One may think of Dutch influence where
adding the patronymic s to names is common,
e.g., Meyers. Barker used the term "ornamenta-
tion" for lack of a better one.54 He applied the
same label to the spreading fad of doubling
the final l in names such as Russell<Russel. The
change actually signals the switch of the stress
to the second syllable. It is widespread also in
names of German origin including but not re-
- 3 2 -
German Surnames
stricted to those of East Coast Jews, e.g., Engell,
Handell, Himmell, Kreidell, Markell, Vogell. Often
the stress is switched in speech without a corre-
sponding change in the spelling, e.g., Glickel,
Markel may be stressed on the second syllable.
V. CONCLUSION
Name changes still take place but they are
minor ones. The son of a recent Swiss immi-
grant by the name of Grüter who spelled his
name Grueter in America, has decided to just
use Gruter, without difficulties so far. But it is
no longer advisable to be unconcerned about
the consequences of a name change. As
Howard F. Barker put it, paraphrased and
quoted by Mencken:
"[t]he surnames of the American people have
been greatly stabilized by the wholesale regi-
mentation introduced by World War I. Many of
the conscripts rounded up for that war had
only the vaguest idea of the spelling of their
names, and not a few were uncertain as to what
their names were, but by the time they were
discharged every man had a name that was
imbedded firmly in the official records, and he
had to stick to it in order to enjoy any of the
benefits and usufructs of a veteran. On the
heels of this came the general spread of life in-
surance, a powerful stabilizing force. [...] Then
came the automobile registration. Automobiles
not only changed the face of the American
landscape; they also went a long way toward
stopping changes of family names. Automobile
titles soon constituted a formidable body of
property records. [...] Every million cars meant
another million families named for good. After
some years came Social Security. [. . .] By 1940
American nomenclature was vastly more stable
than it had been in 1910, or even in 1920."55
.Jürgen Eichhoff
The Pennsylvania State University
Barker, Howard F. "How the American
Changes His Name." The American Mercury
36 (1935), 101-03.
Baumann, Elda Ottilie. German Surnames in Po-
tosi. Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin,
1938. [Typescript]
Deiler, J. Hanno. The Settlement of the German
Coast of Louisiana and the Creoles of German
Descent. Philadelphia: Americana Germanica
Press, 1909.
Dictionary of American Biography. Ed. Allen
Johnson [et al.]. Vols. 1-22. New York: Scrib-
ner, 1928-40.
Gerber, David A. The Making of an American
Pluralism. Buffalo, New York, 1825-60. Ur-
bana: U of Illinois Press, 1989.
Glazier, Ira A., and P. William Filby. Germans to
America. List of Passengers Arriving at U.S.
Ports. Vol. 1- (42 so far). Wilmington: Schol-
arly Resources, 1988-.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Goethe's Autobi-
ography. Poetry and Truth From My Own Life.
Translated by R.O. Moon. Washington,
D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1949.
Green, M. Margaret. from trail dust to star dust.
The Story of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, a City Re-
sulting from Its Environment. Johnstown, PA:
Greer 1960.
Hanks, Patrick, and Flavia Hodges. A Dictio-
nary of Surnames. Oxford, New York: Oxford
U Press, 1988.
Haugen, Einar. The Norwegian Language in
America. A Study in Bilingual Behavior.
Bloomington and London: Indiana Univer-
sity Press, 1969.
Hilbig, Frederick Walter. Americanization of Ger-
man Surnames And the Related Process of
Changes in Europe. M.A. thesis, University of
Utah, 1958. [Typescript.]
Jones, George F. German-American Names. Balti-
more: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1990.
Kenyon, John Samuel, and Thomas Albert
Knott. A Pronouncing Dictionary of American
English. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam, 1953.
Kuhns, Oscar. "Studies in Pennsylvania Ger-
man Family Names." Americana Germanica 4
(1902): 299-341.
Leighly, John. German Family Names in Kentucky
Place Names. New York: American Name So-
ciety, 1983. [American Name Society Mono-
graph No.2.]
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. An in-
quiry into the development of English in the
United States. Fourth ed., corrected, en-
larged and rewritten. New York: Knopf,
1936.
- 3 3 -
Sources
German Surnames
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. An in-
quiry into the development of English in the
United States. Supplement II. New York: Knopf,
1948.
Metcalf, George J. "Translation Pronunciation:
A Note on Adaption of Foreign Surnames in
the United States." Names 33 (1985): 268-70.
Palatine Patter. The Newsletter of Palatines to Amer-
ica. Columbus, OH.
PhoneDisc USA. Discs 1 (Residential East) and 2
(Residential West). Bethesda, MD: Digital
Directory Assistance, Winter 1994. [Regu-
larly updated versions available.]
Reaney, P. H., and R. M. Wilson. A Dictionary of
English Surnames. 3rd ed. London and New
York: Routledge, 1991.
Rupp, Israel Daniel. General Remarks on the Ori-
gin of Surnames; Interpretation of Baptismal
Names, Which Occur in the Collection of Thirty
Thousand Names of German, Swiss and Other
Immigrants [...] Harrisburg: Scheffer, 1856.
Webster's Third New International Dictionary
of the English Language. Unabridged.
Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1961.
Yoder, Donald H. "Dutchified Surnames." Al-
lentown Morning Call Sept. 21, 1946. (Here
cited after Mencken, The American Language.
Supplement II, 410-11.)
Zoar. An Ohio Experiment in Communalism.
Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1952.
NOTES
1
This overview is based on an extensive yet possibly still
incomplete collection of name changes compiled by the
author. A "dinner talk" version was presented at the An-
nual Meeting of the Society for the History of Germans in
Maryland on April 18, 1995; a full-fledged book version is
scheduled for the near future. We use phonetic transcrip-
tions (in square brackets, [ ]) for the benefit of our readers
in Germany who may not be able to guess the pronuncia-
tion of a name in the U.S. Pointed brackets (< >) are used
for actual orthographic features, otherwise, letters are sim-
ply printed in italics. Those readers who are not familiar
with these conventions may safely ignore them; care was
taken to explain all pronunciations and technical terms.
2
Goethe expressed it this way: "A man's name is not a
cloak that merely hangs about him, and which, perchance,
one may safely twitch and tear, but a perfectly fitting gar-
ment, grown over and over him like his skin, which one
cannot scratch and scrape without wounding the man
himself." Goethe's Autobiography. Poetry and Truth From My
Own Life, 356 (Part II, Book 10).
3
Barker, "How the American Changes His Name," 101.
4
The many and often curious changes which German
surnames underwent in this country have repeatedly at-
tracted the attention of scholars as well as laypersons.
Oscar Kuhns calls his study of 1902 "the first treatise of the
kind in America," but only five pages are actually devoted
to the discussion of German surname changes in America.
H.L. Mencken, in his cursory but fascinating manner, pro-
vides a wealth of material especially on 479-85, 4th edition
of The American Language, and 407-13 of Supplement II. In-
valuable are two unpublished academic theses which are
the only systematic treatments so far of German surnames
in the American environment. One is the doctoral disserta-
tion of 1938 by Elda O. Baumann on the German sur-
names in the small Wisconsin city of Potosi, the other a
1958 masters thesis by Frederick W. Hilbig which discusses
the Americanization of German surnames on the basis of
evidence lifted from city directories across the country. Al-
though written with a different goal in mind, an over-
whelming record of name change possibilities is available
in John Leighly's German Family Names in Kentucky Place
Names.
5
Jones, German-American Names, 53.
6
Actually, we do not even know when and by whom the
lists were written. Glazier and Filby (Germans to America,
vol. 42, X; also in the preface to the other volumes) claim
that "[although the manifests provide significant infor-
mation about nineteenth-century immigration, we know
little about the compilation of these lists; we do not know
who made the lists originally, or if there was any uniform
standard applied in collecting the data at the various
ports. Some evidence suggests that the lists were compiled
first by shipping agents at the port of embarkation and ini-
tially contained the names of all prepaid passengers; the
names of additional passengers were added on board,
after which clerks copied the lists before depositing them
with U.S. authorities at the port of debarkation."
7
Mencken, The American Language, 483.
8
Mencken, The American Language, 482.
9
So already Oscar Kuhns, "Studies in Pennsylvania Ger-
man Family Names," 320 ("sometimes"); see also Donald
Yoder, "Dutchified Surnames" (cited after Mencken, The
American Language, Supplement II, 410): "the immigrants
and their descendants simply learned to spell their sur-
names as they themselves pronounced them."
10
Yoder, however, suggests that it was actually the immi-
grants and their descendants themselves who brought the
respelling about. See preceding note.
11
Haugen, The Norwegian Language in America, 201-05.
12
Installed in a computer with CD-ROM drive, the two
discs list the names, addresses and telephone numbers of
(it is claimed) 80 to 90 percent of all residences in the
U.S. The actual percentage is probably lower, and the list
contains many errors in the spelling of the names, but
it is nevertheless an invaluable tool for the study of
names.
- 3 4 -
German Surnames
13
Haugen, The Norwegian Language in America, 202.
14
The American Language, Supplement II, 407.
15
The Norwegian Language in America, 202.
16
The American Language, Supplement II, 409-10.
17
Metcalf, "Translation Pronunciation [. . .]," 268.
Bernard J. Freitag, President of the German Society of
Pennsylvania in Philadelphia assures me that whereas many
people including some families related to him pronounce
the name [fritag], to his knowledge no one has pro-
nounced the name like the English name for the weekday.
18
German Surnames in Potosi, p.100. The pronunciation
may have started as an American rendering of the German
umlaut [y] but its continued existence, in spite of the
spelling, is remarkable nevertheless.
19
Metcalf, "Translation Pronunciation [. . .]," 268-70.
20
The city gained a place in the national consciousness
through the flood that swept it away in 1889 after the break
of the Conemaugh dam.
21
Green, from trail dust to star dust, 20-22.
22
Baumann, German Surnames in Potosi, 97.
23
As happened to the German parliamentarian Franz-
Josef Strauß who during a visit of New York was robbed of,
among other things, his passport by three prostitutes. For a
while, the New York Police Department was unable to re-
turn the passport to his rightful owner because the Ger-
man Consulate General did not recognize the name read
as "Straub" as being that of the visiting dignitary. See Der
Spiegel 13/1971,25.
24
The umlauts are treated here as requiring respelling
because of their graphic representation and because all
three umlauts, <ä>, <ö> and <ü> can then be discussed to-
gether. Of course, their German acoustic value is absent in
the English language and thus requires adaptation, which
may result in respelling also.
25
Many may still be familiar with the name Larry Biit-
tner, a player for the Chicago Cubs. (I owe this first exam-
ple to my former Madison colleague, Donald A. Becker.)
Reimschiissel was reported by F.W. Hilbig, Americanization of
German Surnames [...], 41. Now, examples can be found eas-
ily by checking PhoneDisc for German surnames with <ü>,
replacing the <ü> with <ii> in the search command. For ex-
ample, PhoneDisc lists Miiller no fewer than 103 times, Miick
forty-nine times, Biittner twenty-six times.
26
The descendants of Joseph Bäumeler who founded
the communal settlement of Zoar, Ohio, in 1817, spell
their name Bimeler. See Zoar. An Ohio Experiment in Commu-
nalism, 70.
27
Surnames beginning with Y are practically non-exis-
tent in German; exceptions are non-native names and acci-
dental spellings.
28
The name is generally pronounced [laflIn] today but
the original pronunciation was [laxlIn]. See Kenyon and
Knott, A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English, s.v. Also
Jones, German-American Names, p.26, and Mencken, The
American Language: Supplement II, 408.
29
A deliberate change by a later immigrant, Dellenbach to
Dellenbaugh, was reported for Buffalo, N.Y., by Gerber, The
Making of an American Pluralism, 201.
30
Ken Bode, the moderator of PBS' "Washington Week
in Review," makes the extra effort pronouncing his name
[boõdi] while others use [boõd].
31
Mencken, The American Language, Supplement II, 412.
32
"Dutchified Surnames," see Mencken, The American
Language: Supplement II, 410.
33
Clark Gable's ancestors were indeed immigrants by the
name of Göbel. There was no English evidence except the
American name for the entry Gable in Hanks and Hodges'
Dictionary of Surnames (personal communication by the au-
thor).
34
General John J. Pershing's ancestor Friedrich Pfoer-
sching immigrated to Pennsylvania in 1749. See Mencken,
The American Language, 480.
35
In English, the name formation process just like in
German resulted in situations where a first element ending
in an h would be linked to a second beginning with the
same letter, as in church and hill. However, English nomen-
clature will not easily allow a double h. Hence, the name
Churchill There are exceptions, though. In addition to
4,794 Churchills, PhoneDisc lists thirty-six Churchhills in the
United States.
36
Mencken, The American Language, 485.
37
Barker, "How the American Changes His Name," 102.
38
Gerber, The Making of an American Pluralism, 201.
39
Mencken, The American Language: Supplement II, 411
(Mencken's source could not be verified.)
40
The same observation is made by Haugen: "translation
was not a common practice among the Norwegians." The
Norwegian Language in America, 204.
41
"How the American Changes His Name," 102.
42
"Conversion [. . .] amounts to the adopting of a more
familiar, similar-sounding designation." Howard F. Barker,
"How the American Changes His Name," 101.
43
Hanks and Hodges, A Dictionary of Surnames, s.v. Wag-
ner.
44
Beam does exist as a surname in England, according to
Reaney and Wilson. However, it is rare and not likely to
have provided the "pull" that changed Bame into Beam in
the eastern U.S.
45
PalatinePattern (1995), 6.
46
Several in Lancaster, PA. Also in Little Germany, Perry
County, PA, where the tombstones in the Ludolph Church
cemetery provide the transitional spelling Reapsam.
47
The American Language, 479. PhoneDisc does not yield
either Todenacker or Toothatcher for anywhere in the U.S.
(sorry, Herb); it does list Tootha(c)ker and Toothhaker.
48
A friend with whom I discussed Cashdollar mentioned
that he had heard there was a name Americandollar, a folk
etymological rendering of the German name Mergenthaler.
Again, PhoneDisc does not list this name; it's likely to be a
joke (sorry, Don).
49
The Norwegian Language in America, 205.
50
Dictionary of American Biography, vol. 4, s.v. Cist.
51
Deiler, The Settlement of the German Coast of Louisiana,
94-105.
52
Hilbig, Americanization of German Surnames, 33.
53
Mencken, The American Language, Supplement II, 409.
54
"How the American Changes His Name," 103-03.
55
The American Language: Supplement II, 461.
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